Hindi (pronunciation (help·info), Devanagari: हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ or हिà¤à¤¦à¥, IAST: HindÄ«, IPA: [hɪnd̪iË]), an Indo-European language spoken all over India in varying degrees and extensively in northern and central India, is one of the two central official languages of India, the other being English.it is part of a language continuum of the Indic family, bounded on the northwest and west by Punjabi, Sindhi, and Gujarati; on the south by Marathi and Konkani; on the southeast by Oriya; on the east by Bengali; and on the north by Nepali. It is also bordered to the south by the non-Indo-Aryan Kannada.
More precisely, Hindi also refers to a standardized register of Hindustani termed khariboli, that emerged as the standard dialect.
Hindī
हिनà¥à¤¦à¥, हिà¤à¤¦à¥
Spoken in: India, Pakistan, Nepal, Fiji, with significant minorities in the Philippines, Thailand, UK, USA, Canada, Dubai
Total speakers: —
Ranking: 3 to 5 (native speakers)
Language family: Indo-European
Indo-Iranian
Indo-Aryan
Hindī
Writing system: Devanagari script
Official status
Official language in: India
Fiji (as Hindustani)
Regulated by: Central Hindi Directorate (only in India)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-1: hi
ISO 639-2: hin
ISO 639-3: variously:
hin — Khariboli
anp — Angika
awa — Awadhi
bho — Bhojpuri
gbm — Garhwali
hne — Chhattisgarhi
kfy — Kumaoni
mag — Magadhi
mai — Maithili
raj — Rajasthani
The origin of the word Hindi can be traced back to Sanskrit word Sindhu (Sanskrit: सिनà¥à¤§à¥). Zoroastrians who were India's immediate neighbors pronounced "Sindhu" as "Hindu" in their Avestan language. Using the word "Hindu" for "Sindhu", they referred to the people who lived near or across the Sindhu River as "Hindu" and their home as "Hindustan". The Sanskrit word Sindhu in its Avestan form Hindu (for believers of Hindu faith), Hind (for Indian country) and Hindi (for Indian language) passed on to later Iranian languages like Pahlavi and Persian.
In modern contexts, the word Hindī comprises Hind "India", and the adjectival suffix ī. Hence Hindī translates to "Indian". In modern times, Hindī as taken to mean "Indian" is chiefly obsolete; it now specifically refers to the language bearing that name.
Hindi is the predominant language in the Indian states and union territories of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Linguistic scholars refer to this area as the Hindi belt.Outside these areas, Hindi is widely spoken and understood in cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, Chandigarh, Ahmedabad, and Hyderabad, all of which have their own native languages but harbour large communities of people from various parts of India. In fact, it is possible to live and transact business in almost all major cities of India with the knowledge of Hindi.
Local variations of Hindi are counted as minority languages in several countries, including Australia, Canada, Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, Nepal, New Zealand, South Africa, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, UK and USA among various other countries around the world.
Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. According to the 1991 census of India[5] (which encompasses all the dialects of Hindi, including those that might be considered separate languages by some linguists—e.g., Bhojpuri), Hindi is the mother tongue of about 487 million Indians, or about 40% of India's population that year. According to SIL International's Ethnologue, about 180 million people in India regard standard (Khari Boli) Hindi as their mother tongue, and another 300 million use it as a second language. Outside India, Hindi speakers number around 8 million in Nepal, 890,000 in South Africa, 685,000 in Mauritius, 317,000 in the U.S.,233,000 in Yemen, 147,000 in Uganda, 30,000 in Germany, 20,000 in New Zealand and 5,000 in Singapore, while the UK and UAE also have notable populations of Hindi speakers. Hence, according to the SIL ethnologue (1999 data), a combination of Hindi and Urdu languages makes it the fifth most spoken language in the world.
Note that because of extreme similarity between Hindi and Urdu, speakers of the two languages can usually understand one another, if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. Indeed, linguists sometimes count them as being part of the same language diasystem. However, Hindi and Urdu are socio-politically different, and people who self-describe as being speakers of Urdu would not identify themselves as native speakers of Hindi, and vice-versa.
According to Comrie (1998 data),Hindi is the second most spoken language in the world, with 333 million native speakers.
The 337 million number of the 1991 census includes the following:
Western Hindi
180 M: Khariboli
13 M: Haryanvi
6 M: Kanauji
Eastern Hindi
20 M: Awadhi
11 M: Chhattisgarhi
Bihari
45 M: Maithili (since gained independent status)
26 M: Bhojpuri
11 M: Magadhi
2 M: Sadri
7 M: Pahari
5 M: Rajasthani
From 1991 to 2006, the population of India has grown by about 30% (from 838 to 1,095 million), so that the number of current speakers may be expected to be roughly a third higher than those given above.
The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, declares Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language(rÄjabhÄá¹£Ä) of the Union (Article 343(1)).Hindi is also enumerated as one of the twenty-two languages of the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which entitles it to representation on the Official Language Commission.The Constitution of India has stipulated the usage of Hindi and English to be the two languages of communication for the Central Government.
It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the central government by 1965, with state governments being free to function in languages of their own choice. This has not, however, happened and English is also used along with Hindi for official purposes. There was widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, in some states, especially the Anti-Hindi agitations in the state of Tamil Nadu, which resulted in the passage of the Official Languages Act (1963). This act provided for the continued use of English, indefinitely, for all official purposes, by the Union government. However, the constitutional directive to the central government to champion the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced the policies of the Union government.
At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following states: Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Delhi. Each of these states may also designate a "co-official language"; in Uttar Pradesh for instance, depending on the political formation in power, sometimes this language is Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language in several states.
Like many other modern Indian languages, it is believed that Hindi had been evolved from Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. Though there is no consensus for a specific time, Hindi originated as local dilects such as Braj, Awadhi and finally Khari Boli after the turn of tenth century. In the span of nearly a thousand years of Muslim influence, such as when Muslim rulers controlled much of northern India during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, many Persian and Arabic words were absorbed into khari boli and was called Urdu or Hindustani. Since almost all Arabic words came via Persian, they do not preserve the original phonology of Arabic.
Hindi is only contrasted with Urdu in the way both were written. Urdu is the official language of Pakistan and also an official language in some parts of India. The primary differences between the two are the way Standard Hindi is written in Devanagari and draws its "vocabulary" with words from (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, while Urdu is written in Nastaliq script, a variant of the (Semitic) Perso-Arabic script, and draws heavily on Persian and Arabic "vocabulary." Vocabulary is in quotes here since it is mostly the literary vocabulary that shows this visible distinction with the everyday vocabulary being essentially common between the two. To a common unbiased person, both Hindi and Urdu are same (Hindustani) though politics of religion and ethnicity portrays them as two separate languages since they are written in two entirely different scripts Hindi-Urdu controversy. Interestingly, if Urdu is written in Devanagiri script, it will be assumed as Hindi and vice versa. The popular examples are Bollywood songs and gazals.
After independence, the Government of India worked on standardizing Hindi, instituting the following changes:
standardization of Hindi grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as "A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi"
standardization of Hindi spelling
standardization of the Devanagari script by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing and to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters.
scientific mode of transcribing the Devanagari alphabet
incorporation of diacritics to express sounds from other languages.
Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit. Standard or shuddh ("pure") Hindi is used only in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language in most areas is one of several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn from Persian and Arabic. In addition, spoken Hindi includes words from English and other languages as well.
Vernacular Urdu and Hindi share the same grammar and core vocabulary and so are practically indistinguishable. However, the literary registers differ substantially in borrowed vocabulary; in highly formal situations, the languages are barely intelligible to speakers of the other. Hindi has looked to Sanskrit for borrowings from at least the 19th century, and Urdu has looked to Persian and Arabic for borrowings from the eighteenth century. On another dimension, Hindi has been associated with the Hindu community and Urdu with the Muslim community.
There are five principal categories of words in Standard Hindi:
Tatsam (ततà¥à¤¸à¤®à¥) words: These are the words which have been directly borrowed from Sanskrit to enrich the formal and technical vocabulary of Hindi. Such words (mostly nouns and adjectives) have been borrowed without any orthographic adaptation. Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms. Among nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit uninflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
Ardhatatsam words: These are words that were borrowed from Sanskrit in the middle Indo-Aryan or early New Indo-Aryan stages. Such words typically have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed.
Tadbhav (तदà¥à¤à¤µ) words: These are inherited words from Sanskrit. They have undergone all of the sound changes affecting the stages of Indo-Aryan between Sanskrit and Hindi.
Deshaj (दà¥à¤¶à¤) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onamatopoetic words.
videshi words: these include all words borrowed from sources other than Indo-Aryan. The most frequent sources of borrowing in this category have been Persian, Arabic, and English.
Similarly, Urdu treats its own vocabulary, borrowed directly from Persian and Arabic, as a separate category for morphological purposes.
Hindi from which most of the Persian, Arabic and English words have been ousted and replaced by tatsam words is called Shuddha Hindi (pure Hindi). Chiefly, the proponents of the so-called Hindutva ("Hindu-ness") are vociferous supporters of Shuddha Hindi.
Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for most native speakers. Strictly speaking, the tatsam words are words of Sanskrit and not of Hindi—thus they have complicated consonantal clusters which are not linguistically valid in Hindi. The educated middle class population of India can pronounce these words with ease, but people of rural backgrounds have much difficulty in pronouncing them. Similarly, vocabulary borrowed from Persian and Arabic also brings in its own consonantal clusters and "foreign" sounds, which may again cause difficulty in speaking them.
Sociolinguists have traditionally classified Hindi into four major variants or styles, viz.
Shuddha Hindi, the standardized Hindi (based on the Khariboli dialect), written in Devanagari script, which contains numerous Sanskrit loanwords, including those introduced more recently to enrich the technical and poetical vocabulary or to replace words of Perseo-Arabic origin. This is the register spoken by the urban Hindu population of north India and is the form of Hindi taught in Indian schools and used in television news and newspapers. High Hindi with Persian and English loanwords is the spoken form of this language in much of North India as well as being used in Hindi films, drama and television serials.
Dakhini, spoken in the Deccan plateau region in and around Hyderabad, similar to Urdu but with fewer words derived from Perso-Arabic in its vocabulary.
Rekhta, a form of Urdu used in poetry.
Urdu, a language whose development is closely tied to that of Hindi (and also based on the Khariboli dialect), written in Perso-Arabic script. It utilizes a more extensive Persian and Arabic vocabulary and fewer Sanskrit loanwords, especially in its formal register. Before the Partition of India, Urdu's linguistic area was similar to that of High Hindi and it was considered the language of choice for the majority of educated middle classes - both Hindu and Muslim - until political currents and lingusitic nationalism post-partition encouraged a more pronounced divide between the two varieties of Khariboli.
Hindustani is generally coined for a hybrid of High Hindi and Urdu, which is used in common speech in India.
This region includes the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chandigarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. Some people, such as the Government of India (while taking census) regard all the languages spoken in these states to be "mother tongues" of Hindi (barring tribal languages). Tiwari ([1966] 2004) lists them under five groups:
Western Hindi (the speech varieties developed from Sauraseni):
Khari boli (à¤à¤¡à¤¼à¥ बà¥à¤²à¥) or Sarhindi or Kauravi, originally spoken in western Uttar Pradesh (the districts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bijnor, Rampur and Moradabad, and district of Dehradun in Uttarakhand) and the Delhi region; the dialect that forms the basis of modern Standard Hindi and Urdu. It is understood and/or spoken throughout the Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan and the borders of Iran to the borders of Burma[citation needed]. It is the almost the lingua franca of the Indian subcontinent, irrespective of political boundaries or official policies. This is not a great difference between the dialects of Khari-boli and Hindustani.
Braj Bhasha (बà¥à¤°à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤·à¤¾), spoken in south-central Uttar Pradesh, in the districts of Mathura, Agra, Aligarh, Hathras, Dhaulpur, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun and Bareilly. It has a rich poetic and literal tradition, especially linked with the Hindu divinity Krishna.
Hariyanvi (हरियाणà¥), spoken in the state of Haryana.
Bundeli (बà¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤²à¥), the speech varieties of the districts of Jhansi, Jalaun and Hamirpur in Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior, Bhopal, Sagar, Chhatarpur, Narsinghpur, Seoni, Hoshangabad, etc. in Madhya Pradesh.
Kannauji (à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¨à¥à¤à¥), the dialect of the districts of Etawah, Farrukhabad, Shahjahanpur, Kanpur, Hardoi,Lakhimpur-Kheri and Pilibhit in Uttar Pradesh.
Eastern Hindi (the speech varieties developed from Ardhamagadhi)
Awadhi (à¤
वधà¥), spoken in central and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, in the districts of Allahabad, Fatehpur, Mirzapur, Unnao, Raebareli, Sitapur, Faizabad, Gonda, Basti, Bahraich, Sultanpur, Pratapgarh and Barabanki. The famous Hindu scripture Ramcharitmanas was written by Tulsidas in this dialect.
Bagheli (बà¤à¥à¤²à¥), spoken in the districts of Rewa, Nagod, Shahdol, Satna, Maihar, etc. in Madhya Pradesh.
Chattisgarhi (à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¤¢à¤¼à¥), spoken mostly in the recently created state of Chhattisgarh
Rajasthani, Malwi, Pahari languages and Bihari languages are considered as dialects of Hindi by the Indian census of 1991. In 2003, Maithili (Bihari) gained the status of an independent official language.
These are usually classified as separate languages by the linguists, belonging to the Western, Northern and Eastern zones of Indo-Aryan.
Depending upon perceptions, people also include various other dialects under Hindi, such as Nimari, Baiswari, Vajjika, Angika, etc
Non-Hindi regions in the Indian subcontinent
Bambaiya Hindi, the dialect of the city of Bombay (Mumbai); it is based on Khariboli dialect, but heavily influenced by Marathi and Gujarati. Technically it is a pidgin, i.e., neither is it a mother language of any people nor is it used in formal settings by the educated and upper social strata. However, it is often used in the movies of Hindi cinema (Bollywood), where it often gives a comical effect on the movie characters.
Dakhini, as discussed above.
Kalkatiya Hindi, another Khariboli-based pidgin spoken in the city of Calcutta (Kolkata), Shillong, etc., heavily influenced by Bhojpuri and Bengali.
Arunachal Hindi is a regional dialect of Hindi popularly spoken in Hindi. This is an amalmagation of Hindi and the various tribal dialects of the state. Words such as 'Yamtar', meaning "pickle" are spoken instead of 'achaar' and so on. Arunachal Hindi is the most popular language spoken in Arunachal Pradesh even in the most remote parts of the state.
Tadj-Uzbeki, a term coined by Tiwari ([1966] 2004), for the dialect spoken by Indian immigrants from 13th century onwards in the border region of Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan (towns of Hisar, Shehr-e-nau, Regar, Surchi, etc). It seems to be based on the Braj, Hariyani and Rajasthani dialects, and is of course highly influenced by Uzbek, Tadjik and Russian languages.
Mauritian Hindi, spoken in Mauritius, based on Bhojpuri and influenced by French.
Sarnami, a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence spoken by Surinamers of Indian descent.
Fiji Hindi, derived form of Awadhi, Bhojpuri and including many English and native Fijian words, is spoken by Fijians of Indian descent.
Trinidad Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in Trinidad and Tobago by people of Indian descent.
South African Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in South Africa by people of Indian descent.
Though Chinese Mandarin is forced upon the Tibetans through the education system, it is Hindi that is popular, spoken and understood widely by the Tibetan traders of Lhasa, and along the area of Tibet bordering India, which is thousands of miles.
The term Urdu arose in 1645. Until then, and even after 1645, the term Hindi or Hindawi was used in a general sense for the dialects of central and northern India.
There are two fundamental distinctions between Standard Urdu and Standard Hindi that lead to their being recognised as distinct languages:
the source of borrowed vocabulary (Persian/Arabic for Urdu and Sanskrit for Hindi); and
the script used to write them in (for Urdu, an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic alphabet written in Nasta'liq style; for Hindi, an adaptation of the Devanagari script).
Colloquially and linguistically, the distinction between the Urdu and Hindi is nearly meaningless. This is true over much of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, wherever neither learned vocabulary nor writing is used. Outside the Delhi dialect area, the term "Hindi" may be used in reference to the local dialect, which may be very different from both Hindi and Urdu.
The word Hindi has many different uses; confusion of these is one of the primary causes of debate about the identity of Urdu. These uses include:
standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India,
formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit,
the vernacular nonstandard dialects of Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu as spoken throughout much of India and Pakistan, as discussed above,
the neutralized form of the language used in popular television and films, or
the more formal neutralized form of the language used in broadcast and print news reports.
The rubric "Hindi" is often used as a catch-all for those idioms in the North Indian dialect continuum that are not recognized as languages separate from the language of the Delhi region. Panjabi, Bihari, and Chhatisgarhi, while sometimes recognised as being distinct languages, are often considered dialects of Hindi. Many other local idioms, such as the Bhili languages, which do not have a distinct identity defined by an established literary tradition, are almost always considered dialects of Hindi. In other words, the boundaries of "Hindi" have little to do with mutual intelligibility, and instead depend on social perceptions of what constitutes a language.
The other use of the word "Hindi" is in reference to Standard Hindi, the Khari boli register of the Delhi dialect of Hindi (generally called Hindustani) with its direct loanwords from Sanskrit. Standard Urdu is also a standardized form of Hindustani. Such a state of affairs, with two standardized forms of what is essentially one language, is known as a diasystem.
Urdu was earlier called ZabÄn-e-UrdÅ«-e-Mu’allah (زباÙ٠اردÙÙ Ù
عÙÛ, à¤à¤¼à¤¬à¤¾à¤¨-ठà¤à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥), lit., the "Exalted Language of the Camp". Earlier, terms Hindi and Urdu were used interchangeably even by Urdu poets like Mir and Mirza Ghalib of the early 19th century (rather, the terms Hindvi/Hindi was used more often). By 1850, Hindi and Urdu were no longer used for the same language. Other linguists such as Sir G. A. Grierson (1903) have also claimed that Urdu is simply a dialect or style of Western Hindi. Before the Partition of India, Delhi, Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad used to be the four literary centers of Urdu — none of which lie in present Pakistan.
The colloquial language spoken by the people of Delhi is indistinguishable by ear, whether it is called Hindi or Urdu by its speakers. The only important distinction at this level is in the script: if written in the Perso-Arabic script, the language is generally considered to be Urdu, and if written in devanagari it is generally considered to be Hindi. However, since independence the formal registers used in education and the media have become increasingly divergent in their vocabulary. Where there is no colloquial word for a concept, Standard Urdu uses Perso-Arabic vocabulary, while Standard Hindi uses Sanskrit vocabulary. This results in the official languages being heavily Sanskritized or Persianized, and nearly unintelligible to speakers educated in the other standard (as far as the formal vocabulary is concerned).
These two standardized registers of Hindustani have become so entrenched as separate languages that many extreme-nationalists, both Hindu and Muslim, claim that Hindi and Urdu have always been separate languages. The tensions reached a peak in the Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867 in the then United Provinces during the British Raj. However, there were and are unifying forces as well. For example, it is said that Indian Bollywood films are made in "Hindi", but the language used in most of them is the same as that of Urdu speakers in Pakistan.
Hindi has a large consonant system, with about 38 distinct consonant phonemes. An exact number cannot be given, since the regional varieties of Hindi differ in the details of their consonant repertoire. To what extent certain sounds that appear only in foreign words should be considered part of Standard Hindi is also a matter of debate. The traditional core of the consonant system, inherited from Sanskrit, consists of a matrix of 20 plosives, 5 nasals, and 8 sonorants and fricatives. The system is filled out by 5 sounds that originated in Persian, but are now considered Hindi sounds. The table below shows the phonology of the Hindi consonants.Note that all nasals, trills, flaps, approximants and lateral approximants in Hindi are regarded as voiced consonants, and that many linguists also call the aspirated voiced plosives as breathy voice or murmur stops.
Bilabial Labio-
dental Dental Alveolar Retroflex Post-alveolar/
Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Plosives (unaspirated)
Plosives (aspirated) p
pÊ° b
bʱ t̪
t̪ʰ d̪
d̪ʱ Ê
ÊÊ° É
Éʱ k
kÊ° g
gʱ q
Affricates ʧ or cÉ
ʧʰ or cÉÊ° ʤ or ÉÊ
ʤʱ or ÉÊʱ
Nasals m n (ɳ) (ɲ) (Å)
Fricatives f (v) x É£ (Ï) (Ê) h ɦ
Sibilants s z Ê Ê
Flaps ɾ ɽ
ɽʱ
Trills (r)
Approximants Ê j
Lateral
approximant l
The 25 stop consonants occur in five groups, with each group sharing the same position of articulation. These positions in their traditional order are: velar, retroflex, palatal, dental, and bilabial. In each position, there are five varieties of consonant, with four oral stops and one nasal stop. An oral stop may be voiced, aspirated, both, or neither. This four-way opposition is the hardest aspect of Hindi pronunciation for a speaker of English. The table below shows the traditional listing of the Hindi consonants (in the Devanagari script) with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (/É/), and is named in the table as such. The Roman script equivalent that is normally used to transcribe Hindi in casual transliteration is also given in the second line.
The 25 stop consonants occur in five groups, with each group sharing the same position of articulation. These positions in their traditional order are: velar, retroflex, palatal, dental, and bilabial. In each position, there are five varieties of consonant, with four oral stops and one nasal stop. An oral stop may be voiced, aspirated, both, or neither. This four-way opposition is the hardest aspect of Hindi pronunciation for a speaker of English. The table below shows the traditional listing of the Hindi consonants (in the Devanagari script) with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel schwa (/É/), and is named in the table as such. The Roman script equivalent that is normally used to transcribe Hindi in casual transliteration is also given in the second line.
Plosives
Unaspirated
Voiceless Aspirated
Voiceless Unaspirated
Voiced Aspirated
Voiced Nasals
Velar ठ/kÉ/
k; English: scald ठ/kÊ°É/
kh; English called ठ/gÉ/
g; English: game ठ/gʱÉ/
gh; Aspirated/murmured /g/, somewhat similar to doghouse ठ/ÅÉ/
n; English: ring
Palatal ठ/cÉÉ / or / tÊÉ/
ch; English butcher ठ/cÉÊ°É / or /tÊÊ°É/
chh; English: chat ठ/ÉÊÉ / or / dÊÉ/
j; English: jam ठ/ÉÊ汃 / or / dÊʱÉ/
jh; Aspirated/murmured /ÉÊ/, somewhat similar to hedgehog ठ/ɲÉ/
n; English: hinge
Retroflex ठ/ÊÉ/
t; like "t" but with the tongue tip curled back ठ/ÊÊ°É/
th; Aspirated /Ê/ ड /ÉÉ/
d; like "d" but with the tongue tip curled back ढ /ÉʱÉ/
dh; Aspirated/murmured /É/ ण /ɳÉ/
n; like "n" but with the tongue tip curled back
Apico-Dental त /t̪É/
t; Spanish: tomate थ /t̪ʰÉ/
th; Aspirated /t̪/ द /d̪É/
d; Spanish: donde ध /d̪ʱÉ/
dh; Aspirated/murmured /d̪/ न /nÉ/
n; English: name
Labial प /pÉ/
p; English: spin फ /pÊ°É/
ph; English pin ब /bÉ/
b; English: bone ठ/bʱÉ/
bh; Aspirated/murmured /b/, somewhat similar to clubhouse म /mÉ/
m; English: mine
Non-Plosives/Sonorants
Palatal Retroflex Dental/
Alveolar Velar/
Glottal
Approximant य /jÉ/
y; English: you र /ɾÉ/ or /rÉ/
r; Scottish English: trip ल /lÉ/
l; English: love व /ÊÉ/ or /vÉ/
v; between English "w" and "v"
Sibilant/
Fricative श /ÊÉ/
sh; English: ship ष /ÊÉ/
sh; Retroflex /Ê/ स /sÉ/
s; English: same ह /É¦É / or / hÉ/
h; English: behind
At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three consonantal clusters are also added: à¤à¥à¤· /kÊÉ/ (in Hindi), तà¥à¤° /t̪rÉ/ and à¤à¥à¤ /gjÉ/ (pronunciation given for Hindi). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (bindu or nukta) beneath the nearest approximate alphabet. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers do not pronounce these sounds (except /ɽ / and / ɽʱ/) and replace them instead with the nearest equivalents, as shown in column 4 in the table below. These are:
Extra sounds
Symbol IPA Pronunciation and name Equivalent in other languages Often replaced with:
à¤à¤¼ /qÉ/ voiceless uvular plosive Arabic: Qur'an /k/
à¤à¤¼ /xÉ/ voiceless velar fricative German: doch /kÊ°/
à¤à¤¼ /É£É/ voiced velar fricative Persian: Mughal /g/
à¤à¤¼ /zÉ/ voiced alveolar fricative English: zoo /É / or / dÊ/
य़ /ÊÉ/ voiced postalveolar fricative English: Measure /dÊ/
ड़ /ɽÉ/ unaspirated retroflex flap Similar to English butter pronounced laxly
ढ़ /ɽʱÉ/ aspirated retroflex flap
फ़ /fÉ/ voiceless labiodental fricative English: fun /pÊ°/
ड़ /ɽÉ/ and ढ़ /ɽʱÉ/ are not of Persian/Arabic origin, but they are allophonic variants of simple voiced retroflex stops of Sanskrit.
Supra-segmental features
Hindi has a stress accent, but it is not so important as in English. Usually in a multisyllabic Hindi word, the stress falls on the last syllable if all the syllables are equally heavy or equally light. (A light syllable is closed by a short vowel a, i, u, while a medium syllable is closed by a long vowel or diphthong Ä, e, Ä«, o, Å«, au, ai or by two consonants, and a heavy syllable is closed by both a long vowel/diphthong and two consonants.) If the word contains a mixture or heavy and light syllables, the stress falls automatically on the penultimate heaviest syllable. (Cf. McGregor, pp. xx-xxi.) Content words in Hindi normally begin on a low pitch, followed by a rise in pitch.[15][16] Strictly speaking, Hindi, like most other Indian languages, is rather a syllable timed language. The schwa /É/ has a strong tendency to vanish into nothing (syncopated) if its syllable is unaccented. Also note that in written Hindi, many words end in short /u/ or short /i/, but in speech they are often converted to ending in long /uË/ or long /iË/, respectively.
Writing system
Main article: Hindustani orthography
Hindi is written in the standardized Devanagari script, which is written from left to right. The Devanagari script represents the sounds of spoken Hindi very closely, so that a person who knows the Devanagari letters can sound out a written Hindi text comprehensibly, even without knowing what the words mean or having heard them before. The entire alphabet has been discussed in the preceding section on phonology.
Transliteration Conventions
The standard transliteration of Hindi into the Roman alphabet is usually the IAST scheme, whereby the retroflex consonants (retroflex t, d, their aspirates, n, vowel-like r) and the breath h are shown with a dot beneath; the long vowels are shown with a macron or a bar (as Ä above); aspiration of a plosive is shown with a following h; and elided a's are removed for a truer correspondence to speech. Other alphabet characters are pronounced as in normal English. Another transliteration (ITRANS) uses capital letters of English to transcribe the long vowels and retroflex consonants. However, since English is a lingua franca of the educated Indians, and since computer keyboards do not have features for typing the IAST characters, Indians today use a casual transliteration into English for Hindi words; in such a casual transliteration, used especially in online chatting, the retroflex and dental consonants are not differentiated, and neither the short and the long vowels (except that sometimes people double the alphabet to indicate a long vowel).
Grammar
Main article: Hindi-Urdu grammar
Sample Text
See also: Urdu#Examples
The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):
à¤
नà¥à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤¦ 1 — सà¤à¥ मनà¥à¤·à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤°à¤µ à¤à¤° à¤
धिà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ मामलॠमà¥à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤®à¤à¤¾à¤¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¹à¥à¤ बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§à¤¿ à¤à¤° à¤
नà¥à¤¤à¤°à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤®à¤¾ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤¨ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤ हॠà¤à¤° परसà¥à¤ªà¤° à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¹à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤µ सॠबरà¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤µ à¤à¤°à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¹à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¥¤
Transliteration (IAST):
anucched 1 — sabhÄ« manuá¹£yoá¹ ko gaurav aur adhikÄroá¹ ke mÄmle meá¹ janmajÄt svatantratÄ prÄpt hai. Unheá¹ buddhi aur antarÄtmÄ kÄ« den prÄpt hai aur paraspar unheá¹ bhÄÄ«cÄre ke bhÄv se bartÄv karnÄ cÄhiye.
Gloss (word-to-word):
Article 1 — All human-beings to dignity and rights' matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience's endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood's spirit with behaviour to do should.
Translation (grammatical):
Article 1 — All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Common difficulties faced in learning Hindi
the phonetic mechanism of some sounds peculiar to Hindi (e.g. rda, dha etc) The distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants will be difficult for English speakers. In addition, the distinction between dental and alveoloar (or retroflex) consonants will also pose problems. English speakers will find that they need to carefully distinguish between four different d-sounds and four different t-sounds.
pronunciation of vowels: In English, unstressed vowels tend to have a "schwa" quality. The pronunciation of such vowels in English is changed to an "uh" sound; this is called reducing a vowel sound. The second syllable of "unify" is pronounced /É/, not "ee." The same for the unstressed second syllable of "person" which is also pronounced /É/ rather than "oh." In Hindi, English-speakers must constantly be careful not to reduce these vowels.
In this respect, probably the most important mistake would be for English speakers to reduce final "ah" sounds to "uh." This can be especially important because an English pronunciation will lead to misunderstandings about grammar and gender. In Hindi, "vo bolta hai" is "he talks" whereas "vo bolti hai" is "she talks." A typical English pronunciation in the first sentence would be "vo boltuh hai," which will be understood as "she talks" by most Hindi-native speakers.
The 'a' ending of many Sanskrit and Sanskrit borrowed masculine-gender words, due to Romanization, is highly confused by non-native speakers, because the short 'a' is dropped in Hindi. There are exceptions, of course, if the devanagari script itself dictates the additional diacritical mark for the vowel "long Ä" at the end of certain masculine words, like BrahmÄ (बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤¾).
the Verbal concordance; Hindi exhibits split ergativity; see Ergative-absolutive language for an example.
Relative-correlative constructions. In English interrogative and relative pronouns are the same word. In "Who are you?" the word "who" is an interrogative, or question, pronoun. In "My friend who lives in Sydney can speak Hindi," the word "who" is not an interrogative, or question-pronoun. It is a relative, or linking-pronoun. In Hindi, there are different words for each. The interrogative pronoun tends to start with the "k" sound:" kab = when?, kahaaN = where?, kitna = how much? The relative pronouns are usually very similar but start with "j" sounds: jab = when, jahaaN = where, jitna = as much (as).
Literature
Main article: Hindi literature
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Hindi literature draws upon the heritage of Sanskrit literature, and has a long history. Tulasidas's Ramacharitamanasa was an early work in Awadhi that attained wide popularity. Modern Hindi literary figures include :
Main Poetry (kavya) writers
[edit] Saint Poets
The first and foremost of Hindi Poets are Saint Poets or Bhakta Kavigana. Their poetry reflects the most disinguishing feature of Hindi Poetry since this is the poetry of intense spiritualism. Their longing to 'see' or 'merge' with the Supreme Being (God) is vividly reflected in this poetry and its popularity amongst million of Hindi speaking section (which even includes countless 'illiterates') has given it a unique and unparalleled status. Millions of Indians have derived their strength from this blissful collection. It has survived the test of time by being passed on not just via scholars but also through millions of 'illiterate' villagers who sing these poems as a part of their regular celebrations.
This poetry has been the chief carrier and populariser of Indian philosophy through last five centuries. In no other language, poetry has been so much imbibed in the fabric of common folk.
Major poets of this era include
Kabir
Soordas
Tulsidas
Meera
Raskhan
Raidas
Guru Nanak
Other, less popular poets of this era include
Purandardas
Nanddas
Dadu
Modern Poets
Earlier Poets
Ayodhyasingh Upadhyaya "Hariaudh"
Maithili Sharan Gupta
All time Greats (The Chhaayavaadee poets)
Mahadevi Verma
Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala'
Jaishankar Prasad
Sumitranandan Pant
The nationlist Poets
Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar'
Subhadra kumari chauhan
Makhanlal Chaturvedi
Sohan lal Dwivedi
Shyam Narayana Pandeya
The lyrical Poets
Harivansh Rai Bachchan
Gopal Das 'Neeraj'
Shivmangal Singh 'Suman'
Nepali
Narendra Sharma
The originator of Hindi Ghazal :
Dushyant Kumar
The reactionaries
Last fifty years have seen a numbers of ups and downs (mostly downs) in Hindi poetry. The downfall started by expulsion of lyrical and poetic elements from poetic language. Poets who gained prominence were usually not well connected with vast Indian culture and philosophy. Their belief was ultimate revolution, which unfortunately meant only the overthrowing the existing elements. Failure to replae them with something better gave rise to mediocracy; which is reflected in a number of well known poets of this age. Poetry began to grow unpopular with common man at this point since the very poets sitting at the helm of affairs could not produce a significant work which appealed to the heart of millions. This period includes :
Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayana 'Ajneya'
Nagarjun
Dharmveer Bharti
Gajanan Madhav Muktibodh
Shamsher Bahadur Singh
Ashok Vajpayee
Vishnu Khare
Rajesh Joshi
Manglesh Dabral
Alokdhanva
Kumar Ambuj
Sarveswar Dayal Saxena
Neo Modern poets include :
Dr. Jagdish Gupt
Dr. Ashok Chakradhar
Sri Atul Krishna Goswami
Dr. Ravikant Paathak
Dr. Mohit Singh
Their impact on poetry is yet to be assessed.
Main Prose (Gadya) writers
Hindi prose is rich and vivid. It can be categorised under many sections which include
(a) Epics
Narendra Kohli
K. M. Munshi
(b) Novels
Devkinandan Khatri
Munshi Premchand
Narendra Kohli
Phanishwar Nath Renu
Agyeya
Jainendra
Suryakant Nirala
Vishnu Prabhakar
Amrit Lal Naagar
Bheeshm Sahni
Usha Priyamvada
Chatursen Shastri
Nirmal Verma
Kamleshwar
Rajendra Yadav
(c) Short Stories
Munshi Premchand
Narendra Kohli
Agyeya
Chandradhar Sharma Guleri
Rangeya Raghav
Kamleshwar
Nirmal Verma
(d) Satire (Vyanga)
Harishankar Parsai
Narendra Kohli
Shreelal Shukla
Sharad Joshi
Amrit rai
Bhagwan Vaidya "prakhar"
(e) Autobiographies, biographies
Narendra Kohli
Harivansh Rai Bachchan
(g) memoirs and sketches
Mahadevi Verma
Most classic and unparalleled writer par excellence, who established this feature of prose in Hindi
(f) travel diaries
Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan
(g) letters
(h) literary criticism
Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla
hajari prasad dwivedi
Mahadevi Verma
(i) essays
Mahadevi Verma
hajari prasad dwivedi
Ramvriksh Benipuri
Prabhakar Machve
Babu Gulabrai
Miscellaneous
Sanjeev
Raja Radhika Raman Prasad Singh
Krishna Sobti
Ramakant
Jitendra Sahay
Mithileshwar
Bharatendu Harishchandra
Manohar Lal
Dr. Ashok Chakradhar (Born on 8th Feb 1951)
Sribhuti Krishna Goswami
Pundrik Goswami
Entertainment and showbusiness
Main article: Bollywood
Further information: Bollywood songs
Hindi films play an important role in popular culture. The dialogues and songs of Hindi films use Khariboli and Hindi-Urdu in general, but the intermittent use of various dialects such as Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, Punjabi and quite often Bambaiya Hindi, as also of many English words, is common.
Alam Ara (1931), which ushered in the era of "talkie" films in India, was a Hindustani film. This film had seven songs in it. Music soon became an integral part of Hindustani/ Hindi cinema. It is a very important part of popular culture and now comprises an entire genre of popular music. So popular is film music that songs filmed even 50-60 years ago are a staple of radio/TV and are generally very familiar to an Indian.
Hindi movies and songs are popular in many parts of India, such as Punjab, Gujarat and Maharashtra, that do not speak Hindi as a native language. Indeed, the Hindi film industry is largely based at Mumbai (Bombay), in the Marathi-speaking state of Maharashtra. Hindi films are also popular abroad, especially in Pakistan, Afghanistan,Nepal,Bangladesh, Iran and UK.
The role of radio and television in propagating Hindi beyond its native audience cannot be overstated. Television in India was controlled by the central government until the proliferation of satellite TV rendered regulation redundant. During the era of control, Hindi predominated on both radio and TV, enjoying more air-time than local languages. After the advent of satellite TV, several private channels emerged to compete with the government's official TV channel. Today, a large number of satellite channels provide viewers with much variety in entertainment. These include soap operas, detective serials, horror shows, dramas, cartoons, comedies, host shows for Hindi songs, Hindu mythology and documentaries.
Common Phrases
English Hindi (Transliteration) Hindi (Devanagari)
Hindi hindÄ« हिनà¥à¤¦à¥
English angrezÄ« à¤
à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥
Yes hÄn हाà¤
You1 Äp (Formal) à¤à¤ª
You² tum (Informal) तà¥à¤®
You³ tÅ« (used intimately, often derogatory) तà¥
No nahÄ«n नहà¥à¤
Hi/Hello namaste नमसà¥à¤¤à¥
Goodbye namaste, alvidÄ, khudÄ hÄfiz नमसà¥à¤¤à¥, à¤
लविदा
How are you? Äp kaise hain? à¤à¤ª à¤à¥à¤¸à¥ हà¥à¤?
See you phir milenge फिर मिलà¥à¤à¤à¥
Thank you dhanyavÄd, shukriyÄ à¤§à¤¨à¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¾à¤¦
I'm Sorry kshamÄ kÄ«jiye, (also mÄf kÄ«jiye) à¤à¥à¤·à¤®à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥ (माफ à¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥)
Why? kyon? à¤à¥à¤¯à¥à¤?
Who? kaun? à¤à¥à¤¨?
What? kyÄ? à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾?
When? kab? à¤à¤¬?
Where? kahÄn? à¤à¤¹à¤¾à¤?
How? kÄise? à¤à¥à¤¸à¥?
How much? kitne? à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¤¨à¥?
I did not understand main samjhÄ nahÄ«n मà¥à¤ समà¤à¤¾ नहà¥à¤
Help me (please)
Help me! mere madad kÄ«jiye / sahÄyatÄ kÄ«jie! मà¥à¤°à¥ मदद à¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥ / सहायता à¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥
Do you speak English? kyÄ Äp angrezÄ« bolte hain? à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤ª à¤
à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥ बà¥à¤²à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤?
Time please?
Time please? samay kyÄ huÄ? / kitne baje hain? समय à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥à¤? / à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¤¨à¥ बà¤à¥ हà¥à¤?
I do not know mujhe nahÄ«n patÄ à¤®à¥à¤à¥ नहà¥à¤ पता
Hinglish
Main article: Hinglish
"Hinglish" is the use of Hindi and English, combining both, in one sentence. This is more commonly seen in urban and semi-urban centers of population, but is slowly spreading its root into rural and remote areas via television and word of mouth, slowly achieving vernacular status. Many speakers do not realize that they are incorporating English words into Hindi sentences or Hindi words into English sentences.
This highly popular mixing of both the languages in most parts of northern and central India has grown from the fact that English is a popular language of choice amongst the urban youth who find themselves comfortable in its lexicon. It is already the medium for imparting education in many schools across the nation. The advent of cable television and its pervasive growth has seen the masses exposed to a wide variety of programming from across the world.
Another factor contributing to the spread of Hinglish is the popularity of Bollywood films.
Examples
"Dad, time kyÄ huÄ hai?" (Dad, what is the time right now?).
"I have hazÄr things on my mind right now." (I have thousands of things on my mind right now.)
"Mama, mujhe mall se jeans lenī hai." (Mama, I want to buy jeans from the mall).
next time think about it and then ask a stupid question and waste 5 points.